President Gamal Abdel Nasser's Reform in Egypt - Research Paper Example

Table of Contents History of Modern Egypt: President Gamal Abdel Nasser's Reform 1 Works Cited 19 History of Modern Egypt: President Gamal Abdel Nasser's Reform Introduction President Gamal Abdel Nasser is attached with Egypt with good reputation because of the reforms, he brought to the land. The greatest contribution of President Gamal Abdel Nasser to Egypt lies in the fact that even being enthroned with the military coup, this Chief of Egyptian Army did not follow the tyrannical path of other military dictators. President Gamal Abdel Nasser cannot be fully considered as an exception to military rulers even though he did against them regarding dictatorship rule. Even being the military ruler, he was able to win the hearts of the Egyptians as well as of the people of the Middle East. The 1952 revolution was a very crucial incident in history in which, Nasser took part to a great extent and came up as a leader who was anxious to work for the betterment of Egyptian people. Through this revolutionary movement, he was able to make Egypt free from foreign control and usurpation. The mystery of his popularity lies in the fact that the nationalistic zeal and contribution that he showed by introducing several reforms for the betterment of the Egypt of 1950s. When he took the helms of the country in the early 50s, it was really a challenge for him to bring the country back to the way of an overall development. Indeed, it was a challenge for him in the real sense because during those years, the country was panting under the devastating legacy of the British colonial rule. Within a short period, he was able to make the changes in all the important sectors of the country based on his continuous struggle and dedication to his land. Especially Nasser’s reforms that he brought in the Education sector, Health sector, and economic sector can be regarded as accommodating for the whole nation. Suez has helped to categorize him as a renowned political leader all over the world and has also supported him in becoming a champion of the Arab world.1 Moreover, his determined steps to preserve the country’s interest amid the conflicts of the superpowers of the world regarding the hold over the region due to their geographical strategies made him a hero not only in the country but also in the Middle East as well as in the world. His nationalistic zeal began to suffuse the heart of the Arabian people and started to breathe life in his so-called Arabism.2 Though he was becoming the rising Hero of the Arabs, he inevitably had to become the cause of the toothache of the superpowers of the world, because his image as an Arab went directly against the interests of the superpowers in these oil enriched Arabian countries. As an effect of the decolonization, empires of Britain and France were crumbling and retreating from the region, whereas U.S. and USSR started to compete for influence over the region- quarrel over the oil concessions.3 This paper will aim to substantiate his contribution to the Reforms of Egypt and the influence of these reforms on both at home and abroad. Nasser: The Early Years Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in a poor district in Alexandria. His family was of peasants from the village of Beni Morr in Upper Egypt. His father who was employed in the local post office was transferred to Khatatibah; a small village by the delta and it was there where Gamal was first schooled. Gamal later went to live in Cairo with his uncle in Cairo and received news when he was eight years old that his mother had passed away4. Nasser was a troublesome student and had conflicts with many of his British schoolteachers. His involvement in public demonstrations against the British presence in Egypt began very young; when still in grammar school5. Still in school, he was wounded during a demonstration and later arrested by authorities for two days. In 1935, Nasser was elected to lead an organization of secondary school students who believed that the political environment in Egypt was in need of reform6. Two years later, after attending Law College for several months, Nasser enrolled in the Military Academy and a year later graduated with the rank of second lieutenant. Nasser served for several years in Sudan and Upper Egypt and there he met with men of similar ages and mentality to his who shaped his ideals and focused his intentions. Probably the three most influential of these were Abdel Hakim Amir, Zakkaria Mohi el Deen and Anwar Sadat; all of which would go on to play influential roles in the history of their country and with whom Nasser culminated the Free Officer Movement. Transformational event in Nasser’s life was in Feb 1942 when British tanks rolled out in front of King Farouk’s palace and demanded that he appointed Nahas Pasha the PM; King refused and gave an ultimatum, which he ignored and was forced to abdicate by the threat of force. Nasser resolved that Egypt would never again be humiliated in that manner7. Revolution, Rise of Nasser to Power and His Contribution to Reforms In 1948, the Arab-Israeli war had erupted and Nasser was stationed at Fallujah. Fallujah was surrounded by Israeli forces and three Egyptian battalions were isolated from the rest of the army for over two months. Nasser and his colleagues refused to surrender and resisted until a ceasefire was agreed. Nasser and the Free Officers returned from Palestine with a renewed sense of rebellion against their country's government. The humiliation and embarrassment that they felt in the failure to defeat the Israeli army provided fuel for their hatred of the Egyptian monarchy. They felt let down and betrayed by the country, they had vowed to fight for and the Free Officers gradually became more organized and they began to plan for revolution. The year 1952 can be regarded as revolutionary for Egypt and also in the life of Nasser because he was able to make government in Egypt on the basis of the revolution that took place in 1952. He was not alone in bringing the reform but also the Free Officers supported him in revolutionizing Egypt as a whole. The Free Officers were able to revolt after their so long struggle. The 1952 revolution was not an immediate or instantaneous step. It was already been planned a long time ago8. On January 25, 1952, British forces attacked an Ismailia police station9. The police officers refused to surrender and the Battle of Ismailia resulted in the deaths of 50 Egyptian police officers. Riots erupted in Cairo in response to the battle and the Cairo Fires resulted in mass destruction of property. King Farouk, helpless to prevent the disarray his country had fallen into, resorted to change three governments in quick succession. This only increased the Egyptian people's discontent and strengthened their belief that monarchy was ending in Egypt10. On 22 July1952, the Free Officers Movement officially headed by army general in 1948 war-hero Mohammad Naguib began a military coup. Naguib was portrayed as the leader due to his age and the respect, he commanded in both public and military circles but the real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser who was the head of the Revolution Command Council. On the same morning, the coup members assumed control of all Cairo's police stations, radio broadcasts and army command centers. By 7 am, the Free Officers Movement had taken control of Cairo.11 Anwar El Sadat delivered the Movement's first address to the Egyptian people on 23 July 1952, which covered many main notions such as the issues that Egypt faced historically, i.e. bribery, mischief and government instability. It was reported that army was affected because of the problems with the government and its institutions. The examples of defeat on the basis of bribery were given by the leader. Anwar El Sadat made sure that the Army was strong and was able to defend the country if the demerits of the governments were corrected and analyzed. He said that the armed forces would work with the police in order to maintain security and peace in the country and no foreign interference is required for the establishment of security and peace12. The 1952 military coup had proved to be a bloodless transfer of power that was accomplished in record time. However, the Free Officer's Movement was left with the dilemma of what to do with Egypt's monarch ex-ruler. Anwar el Sadat proposed the immediate execution of King Farouk I but Gamal Abdel Nasser as head of the Revolutionary Command Council did not permit it. Instead, the King abdicated power to his infant son Ahmed Fouad. King Farouk I and his companions were allowed to go into exile outside the country. Nasser was right to ensure that the transfer of power remained non-violent. The world was watching Egypt and Western powers; Britain in particular; were not overly pleased with the fact that Egypt was under the control of young, progressive military officers who had strong nationalist inclinations13. By maintaining a peaceful image before the world, there was little Britain could do to interfere in Egypt without provoking worldwide condemnation. To further tie Britain's hands, the newly installed government moved to assure British citizens residing in Egypt that their safety, properties and interests in Egypt were respected and were not put in jeopardy14. The revolution was now a reality. The Free Officers appointed Ali Maher Pasha as Prime Minister and legally introduced the Revolutionary Command Council, which was made up of nine members of the Free Officers and five new participants. Ali Maher resigned in on 7 September 1952 due to disagreements with RCC over their newly proposed land reform laws and was succeeded by Mohammad Naguib15. Nasser along with his other revolutionaries do not keep the power with themselves but transferred it Ali Maher. During this time, Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council was also formed by Nasser and his comrades also belonging to Free Officers group. This revolutionary council was enough powerful. Gamal Abdel Nasser was appointed as the Vice-Chairperson of the council while Muhammad Naquib was given the rank of Chairman. This council was formed by the revolutionaries due to which, the ambitions and ideologies kept by the members were strict and affected their policies as a whole. Due to these tough policies, the council did not allow Ali Maher to continue his being the Prime Minister of Egypt. He had to leave his post as a Prime Minister. Ali Maher lost his post of Prime Minister because of his negation to hold up the Agrarian Reform Law. This law was presented by the council itself due to which, it considered Ali Maher’s negation as a refusal to its policies. Later on, when Ali Maher left his position, Muhammad Naquib took over the post of Prime Minister as well due to which, he was able to keep all the power with him. On 9 September 1952, the Egyptian Agrarian Reform Law was passed signifying the first of Nasser's many reforms in Egypt. The law changed landownership practices in Egypt empowering the peasants and handing them land that had long been under control of aristocrats affiliated with the Ottoman Empire. In the past, these peasants had worked for meager wages simply so they could provide food and shelter to their families. Most times, they had no share in the profits arising from the land's productivity. It was a state very similar to that endured by French peasants prior to the French revolution. The land reform law amassed huge public support for the RCC and the new Egyptian government. While the aristocratic politicians were infuriated at the loss of their land, for once, the serf-class of Egypt felt that they were represented by a government that was working towards improving their lives. Due to the 1952 movement, General Muhammad Naquib that was also a revolutionary and a sincere person to Egypt was elected as President of Egypt. The government that was formed by the steps taken by Free Officers took some very facilitating steps such as they guaranteed Britain that their citizens that are present in Egypt would have no problem in continuing to be there and also that they would be respected as before. This step was taken to ensure that Britain and its forces did no interference in the governmental affairs of Egypt and also provide a chance for the government’s establishment and acceptance16. Not only the British people were facilitated to be with respect in Egypt but also the former King Farouk and his family was asked to depart from Egypt. They were promised that if they would leave the land, they would not be injured and debilitated. They were not asked directly to go away but America was involved in it as the Free Officers took support from America in order to take their required steps. The King and his family was assured that they would be respected and esteemed if they left the country themselves. On 16 January 1953, RCC banned all political parties in Egypt and pronounced themselves as rulers of Egypt for three years of political transition. On 18 June, Egypt was pronounced a republic with Mohammad Naguib acting as President and Prime Minister. Nasser assumed his first official role in government as deputy minister and minister of interior affairs. In January 1954, clashes between student demonstrators and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt led to the outlawing of the Brotherhood which has remained an illegal political entity ever since. Nasser and Naguib began to disagree. Naguib favored a transfer to civilian rule and Nasser believed that such a transfer would open the political scene to radical groups like the Muslim Brotherhood. The RCC removed Naguib from his presidential office in February 1954, placed him under house arrest and announced Nasser as Egypt's new Prime Minister. Popular public protest forced Nasser to return Naguib to his presidential office and later resign from his post as Prime Minister17. However, Nasser continued to quietly gain power and replaced Naguib permanently in October 1954. He did not relent in his efforts to remove British forces from Egyptian soil and eventually succeeded in removing Britain's 80,000 remaining troops from Egypt18. On October 26 1954, the Muslim Brotherhood who were strongly opposed to Nasser made an assassination attempt on Nasser's life while he delivering a public speech19. This allowed Nasser's regime to act with a heavy hand against the Brotherhood and cement his popularity with the Egyptian people. It also put an end to any major public support for Naguib who was believed to have ties with the Brotherhood. Intentions to build a dam in the Upper Egypt had been ongoing for decades. Nasser as a political and economical reformist believed that Egypt would never progress if it could not protect its agricultural lands from the unpredictability of the Nile's devastating droughts and floods. Khrushchev in 21st party congress delivers a tirade against Nasser, saying that he was a young man who could not impose his will on the Arab world; Nasser could not understand the “historical inevitability” of communism because he was talking about socialism. This ended a short period of cordial relations between the Russian leader and Nasser20. The United States and Britain had agreed to finance the building of the Aswan High Dam believing that Nasser would protect their interests in the Middle East because of his anticommunist inclinations. However, Nasser, already a skilled politician and tactician was playing both the Eastern and Western powers to his and Egypt's advantage21. Nasser signed a secret arms agreement with Czechoslovakia, which angered the British and caused them to withdraw from the funding agreement. The United States in turn became outraged when Nasser recognized Communist China and subsequently withdrew their funding22. Nasser faced with a significant funding shortage for a project he believed was essential to the progress of his country, was relentless. In an effort to fund from within, Nasser announced on 25th July 1956 in a mass speech in Alexandria, that the Suez Canal would be nationalized with tolls for five years being used to fund the building of the Aswan High Dam. Nasser's move against the West strengthened his ties with the U.S.S.R. who agreed to provide significant funds to aid the construction of the High Dam. Conversely, nationalization of the Suez Canal and Nasser's agreement with the Soviets outraged Europe. However, Nasser believed that the British Empire could not launch a military offensive against Egypt before two months and rejected the notion of any Israeli involvement23. Nasser was further comforted when the United Nations recognized Egypt's right to assume operating responsibility of the Suez Canal24. Nasser had miscalculated. On October 29th 1956, Israeli forces invaded Sinai. Two days later, France and Britain in the form of a joint army attacked the Canal Zone. The offensive was dubbed the Tripartite Aggression. A week later, under heavy pressure from the U.S.S.R., the U.S. and United Nations, the military operation ended having accomplished none of its goals. To the contrary, Egypt's resistance and unwillingness to surrender only strengthened Nasser's status in Egypt and the Arab world. If the main theme surrounding Nasser's popularity in Egypt was his socialist reforms, the principles of Pan-Arabism were what formed his portrayal as a leader in the Arab world. “Nasserist” parties were emerging all over the Arab world. Arabs viewed Nasser as the hero who had freed Egypt from European colonization and who showed every intention of doing the same for them25. In 1958, Nasser's popularity grew so strong that Syria proposed a union between Egypt and Syria; a move that was strongly supported by the Syrian parliament26. The United Arab Republic was formed but proved a failure and ended three years later. According to Heikal, Egyptology was born amid imperial warfare between France and GB. The French attacked Egypt with the intention of then cultivating it as a launching pad for an invasion of Britain’s most valued possession (India), to interrupt Mediterranean trade routes that were a major source of revenue for the coffers of the British government. The Rosetta Stone was inadvertently discovered by French soldiers digging fortifications, which was key to the decipherment of hieroglyphics. Had it not been for the French invasion, there would have been no Description de l’ Egypte or at least it would have been much delayed. The Stone was later seized by the British, initiating an intense Anglo-French Egyptological rivalry27. Nasser supported Yemeni republicans versus royalists in the North Yemen Civil War. His main intentions were to drive out British troops from the South of Yemen28. Saudi Arabia supported the Royalists and Nasser is believed to have sought an advantage against his long-term adversaries. The war came to a standstill but Egypt suffered heavy military and economic losses. The war, which ran from 1962 to 1970, is considered to have been a contributing cause of Egypt's humiliating defeat to Israel in the Six Day War29. On 5 June 1967, with Egypt engaged in the Yemeni civil war, Israel launched their attack. Nasser, who had dismissed the peacekeeping United Nations Emergency Force from Sinai in May, began deploying troops and closed the straits of Tiran to Israeli ships30. Israel in fear of an attack by Egypt called up their reserves and launched a strike that destroyed the Egyptian Air force. An estimated 300 Egyptian airplanes were destroyed and 100 pilots killed in the initial attack alone31. Egypt suffered enormous losses but government-operated radio stations continued to report news of victory to the Egyptian people. By the end of the war that involved a tirade of Arab states, Israel had occupied Sinai, the Golan Heights, Gazza. Nasser announced to his people: “We cannot hide the fact that we have suffered a grave setback” “I have decided to relinquish completely and definitely any official function and any political role and return to the ranks of the people and carry out my duty with them “and accepted full responsibility for the defeat32. Egyptians took the streets in demonstration showing their support for Nasser. Nasser remained in office. Nasser reformed the Egyptian educational system in a way that resonates in Egyptian society even today. His government exerted efforts to expand both Islamic and secular education33. Plans were made for mass education with guarantees of government jobs for new graduates. He improved access to higher education, which created a generation of educated professionals emanating from poor backgrounds. Nasser's plans were perhaps more ambitious than the political and military environment in Egypt allowed but nonetheless, his achievements in modernizing this field were unprecedented in Egypt. However, there are some analysts that believe that Nasser's policy for free education has produced much quantity of graduates in Egypt but little quality34. Nasser's reign was a time of musical renaissance in Egypt. He took an active interest in music and often used it to direct political opinion. Egypt exported their music to the entire Arabic speaking world and with it Nasser's ideals of Arabism. His rule saw the peak of the careers of musical giants in Egypt such as singer and composer Mohammad Abdel Wahab and singer Om Kolthoum who remain immortalized in Arab culture today35. Egypt's film industry was already booming before Nasser's ascension to power. Its success was heavily attributed to the fact that it was the only seriously funded film industry in the Arab world. Cairo was, for all practical comparison purposes, the Hollywood of the Arab world and its biggest exposure to visual arts. The Golden Age continued well into Nasser's era which saw the emergence of a man considered to be the most innovative director in Egyptian film history; Youssef Chahine. In 1966, Nasser nationalized the Egyptian film Industry36. After that, the quality of cinema in Egypt is considered to have gradually declined. In 2007, Egypt's Daily News newspaper; an independent newspaper (not operated by the government); evaluated the best accomplishments in the history of Egyptian cinema. The top 15 list they developed includes 6 cinematic works completed during Nasser's rule37. Only one of those six movies was produced after 1966. When Nasser provided the Egyptian people with universal free access to Universities that included medical schools, there followed an explosion of newly graduated medical professionals of all disciplines graduated during Nasser's rule. He also reformed the healthcare system and ensured free universal health coverage in public hospitals. Nasser's policy to expand accessibility of healthcare and education to include the impoverished classes of Egyptian society made him a champion among the lower-class Egyptian public38. Nasser's socialism introduced radical changes in Egypt's economy. Egypt had been dominated by a capitalist economy in the past and Nasser's biggest selling point to his people was empowerment of the needy. He provided the poor in Egypt with land and resources to maintain their livelihood and their independence from aristocratic oppression. Property reforms limited the amount of property that could be owned by a single person or family. They also ensured a lowering of rents of agricultural land. This contributed to new farmers being able to increase their families' incomes and improve their living conditions and helped decrease the gap between classes in Egyptian society39. Egypt's industry and production increased with noted improvements in the petrol refinement industry. Nasser's rule also imposed restrictions on foreign ownership in Egypt. Egypt was in a state of continuous political strain with the Western world and Nasser did not want a political and military conflict to evolve into an economic invasion. Starting in 1955, Nasser nationalized the entire banking and insurance system40. Nationalization eventually led to an efflux of foreigners from Egypt who could no longer invest in the country. Gamal Abdel Nasser by his military intervention showed that sometimes for safeguarding a country, military intervention is essential. He was able to succeed in his revolution of 1952 because of his policies and his consideration of military as wholly crucial for the country’s success and establishment41. He was himself a military man, acted with his military instincts, and took certain steps that were accommodating and facilitating for the Egyptian society as a whole. He did not use his being associated to military as a tool for his dictatorship but as a support for the welfare and betterment of his people. He was not a person who was ready to sacrifice everything for power. He battled for his country by means of his revolutionary steps that he took along with his comrades. Conclusion Nasser is one of the most heavily debated political figures in history. His fierce Nationalism and Arabism made him a hero in his country and the Arab world. His reforms improved living conditions and opportunities for lower class of Egyptians who had been oppressed for thousands of years. On the other hand, his strong fist of military control flexed its fingers in all walks of Egyptian society and in consequence, the progress of free speech and democracy suffered. His military failures also weakened his position and set Egypt back economically and politically. However, he was the only modern Arab ruler to willfully resign from presidency in acceptance of responsibility; a move that was unprecedented and regained credibility with his people. Regardless of whether or not his tenure proved beneficial to the long-term interests of Egypt, there is little doubt that much of the Western world breathed a sigh of relief upon his death. His legacy in all countries of the Arab world remains prominent until today. The reforms in which, he participated and those in which, he was fully involved come up as energizing the Egyptian society and people. It was only because of Nasser’s steps and his revolutionary struggle that Egypt was able to take back its freedom and power from foreign hands. The Egyptian people cannot forget Nasser’s personality as he took greater part in Egypt’s freedom and accomplishments as a country. Works Cited "About Egypt Post", Egypt Post. 29 April 2009 http://www.egyptpost.org/en/sitePage.asp?pid=1 Aburish, Said. “Nasser, the Last Arab”. St. Martin's Press, 2004 7–14. Alexander, Kitroeff. “Out of Egypt”, October 15, 2002. Dougherty, James. “The Aswan Decision in Perspective”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 74, No. 1 (Mar. 1959), 21-45 Published by the Academy of Political Science. 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The Cairo Documents: The Inside Story of Nasser and His Relationship with World Leaders, Rebels, and Statesmen. Doubleday, 1973. Holmes, Mary Tyler E. “Higher education reform in Egypt: preparing graduates for Egypt's changing political economy.” Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 2008 1-3. 175-185. Horowitz, Irving Louis. Military Origins of Third World Dictatorship and Democracy. JSTOR, Third World Quarterly 3 (1) (1981): 37-47. Ibrahim, Sammar. “Profile: Anwar Al-Sadat' Egypt State Information Service”, 29 April 2009. Little, Tom, Egypt, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958: 57. Mannes, Aaron. “A Reformer in Egypt”, Aaron Mannes on Egyptian Political Essays by Tarek Heggy, December 2002 and January 2003. Neff, Donald. "Nasser Comes to Power in Egypt, Frightening Britain, France and Israel ", WRMEA. 28 April 2009 http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0796/9607083.htm "Nasserism", Egypt News. 01 May 2009 http://news.egypt.com/en/nasserism.html "Nasser resigns: crowds in Cairo weep", Telegraph. 02 May 2009 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400128/Nasser-resigns-crowds-in-Cairo-weep.html Nutting, Anthony. Nasser. E. P. Dutton, 1972. 36-37. “Official Webpage of Youssef Chaine”, 02 May 2009 http://www.youssefchahine.us/ Osman , Tarek. "Nasser's Complex Legacy", Open Democracy. 01 May 2009 http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/conflicts/middle_east/gamal_abdel_nass “Pollack, Kenneth “Air Power in the Six-Day War”, The Journal of Strategic Studies. 2005 28(3), p. 474. Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict. (Sixth Edition) Bedford: St. Martin’s 2007, 247. Stephens, Robert Henry. Nasser: A Political Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972. 29-31. Stephens, Robert Henry. “Nasser; A Political Biography”. New York: Simon and Schuster, 31-34. Stephens, Robert Henry. Nasser; A Political Biography. Simon and Schuster, 1972, 114. "The Best of Egyptian Cinema", Daily News Egypt, 02 May 2009 http://www.thedailynewsegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8187 "The Day Nasser Nationalized The Canal". BBC News. 26 April 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5168698.stm “The Suez Company's Concession in Egypt 1854-1956: Modern Infrastructure and Local Economic Development”, Enterprise & Society, Vol. 5 No. 1 March 2004. 107-127. Read More